分享阅读的系统性教学是否适合美国儿童学习汉语？分享阅读的教学在中国已被普遍接受，而且得到老师、家长和学生的认可。分享阅读教学注重在背景下学习汉字，首先是文化背景。让儿童了解故事的有关文化背景。例如，熊猫一课，老师首先给学生展示中国四川熊猫的饲养地和熊猫在那里吃穿住行的照片，同时还观看了有关的录像、电影片段等。其次是语言背景，在熊猫一课要学习吃、爬、跑、跳等动词，那么老师首先结合故事书中的动作图片解释熊猫的活动，同时在介绍这些动词时还不失时机地介绍动词的偏旁部首，让儿童了解中文语义与字形的关系。同时分享阅读还注重讨论教学，每个儿童均有机会参与讨论，表达自己对故事中人物、字词等的理解，通过课后的扩展活动来进一步巩固他们所学习的内容，包括读、写、表演等活动。由于拼音的教学是一种伴随式的教学，它不是集中将所有拼音全部学完，而是随着故事的学习，逐渐地将拼音元音及辅音引入教学中，结合故事中生字的学习加强拼音的掌握。由于分享阅读教学对美国儿童并不陌生，这种以故事为载体的语言教学模式容易被儿童接受，经过一年的教学，美国儿童的中文学习都得到了长足的进步。该研究也证明分享阅读教学法不仅对第一语言的学习有益，同时对第二语言的学习也是一个有效的教学方法。
中文学习对美国儿童来说是第二语言，是否英文的语音意识有助于他们的中文学习呢？英文是一种字母语言，它是遵循语言的形—音规则，当你阅读字母语言时，你可以根据它的形音规则轻易地读出，但你未必了解其中的意义；中文正好与英文相反，它是一种非字母语言，每个汉字既有它的“声旁”也有它的“意旁”。当你看到汉字时，你或许可以猜到一些它的意义，但你未必能够读出它的发音，因为中文的声旁多是非规则的声旁，意旁的规则性要远远大于声旁，也就是说中文更多的是传递形—义规则。当美国儿童学习中文时，他们会自然地想要使用他们已有的英文中的语音知识，然而，中文的语音知识与英文的非常不同，他们习惯了的音位意识在中文中无用武之地，挑战他们的是从未见过的音调意识，而且中文中的语音是一个以音节为整体的语音意识。例如，“妈”中的声旁是“马”，当你看到“马”是，你会直接发出/mǎ/，“马”不能再分成更小的单位。所以读出英文中的“声音”和中文中的“声音”是完全不同的过程。按照心理语言学的纹理理论（Ziegler，& Goswami，2005），语音解码取决于形—音关系的规则性。儿童最初对口语中大的语音单位比较敏感，逐渐地这种敏感性达到了精细的更小的语音单位。在语音规律比较规范的语言（如英语）里，它所需要解码的是要小到纹理的音位级。相比而言，语音规律相对不够规范的语言（如中文），它需要解码的纹理就相对比较大到音节级，也就是说，更小的语音单位的学习经验很难转移到相对比较大的语音单位的加工，更大的语音单位的加工需要更复杂、更加整合的技能才可以完成。这一理论也就解释了为什么美国儿童在学习中文时没有也无法将英文中的语音意识转移到中文学习中。
同样美国儿童通过一年的中文学习，是否中文的语音意识会有助于他们的英语学习呢？多变量回归分析的结果表明，只有中文音节意识与英文阅读有显著的相关，不仅可以有效地预测无意义字命名流畅性，同时对英文字命名任务有显著的预测作用。而其他三个中文语音任务（首音、尾音和音调）没有呈现这样的关系。这一结果支持了纹理理论以及佩尔费蒂（Perfetti，2007）的研究。中文的语音加工相比英文来说更加复杂，它需要更加整合的加工。例如，中文的音节意识，它的加工不仅要触及首音、尾音和音调的加工，同时它需要将所有信息整合加工。通过一年的中文学习，美国儿童的语音意识得到了提高，音节意识、音节意识是更高级的语音意识，高级的语音意识会有益于低级语音意识的发展和提高。也就是说，儿童所获得的更大的语音单位的语音意识会转移或促进小单位语音意识的发展。或者说美国儿童在中文的学习过程中，他们所获得的中文高级语音意识（音节意识）有助于他们的英语语音意识的发展，从而进一步促进了他们英文阅读水平的提高。美国儿童学习中文，他们中文的学习会有益于他们英语解码或阅读水平，因为中文的语音意识加工包括整合的或纹理更大的单位的加工，这个整合的语音加工会促进他们母语的字的解码。而中文的首音、尾音意识及音调意识相对音节意识而言，他们的单位更小，他们的加工水平更低，因此对他们英文的阅读能力就没有任何贡献作用。
近年来，中文作为第二语言的教学受到越来越多的关注，教育研究者及教师希望得到大量的实证性研究的成果来帮助他们开展更为有效的教学活动。该研究得出了以下结论：分享阅读的系统性教学适合美国儿童学习汉语；中文学习对美国儿童来说是第二语言，英文的语音意识对中文的学习没有直接的帮助；美国儿童通过一年的中文学习，他们的英文字解码或阅读受益于他们的中文学习。由于中文的语音加工是基于整个字的语音加工，它需要更高级的语言加工和整合能力。虽然对于美国儿童来说学习中文具有相当大得挑战，但他们也从中获益。
这一研究给教育者的建议是：在中文作为第二语言的教学中，使用类似于分享阅读的教学模式，强调文化背景及语言背景的辅助作用，在中文教学中强调字形与字义的关系，同时要加强中文的语音训练。这样不仅有利于儿童的中文学习，而且会有助于他们的母语——英文的学习。该研究在理论上进一步更好地解释了第二语言的获得，同时为教师提出了汉语教学的方案及教学活动指南。
摘要 Abstract
Chinese language is listed as the second largest, after the Spanish in foreign language teaching in elementary and secondary American schools.Thus the teaching Chinese as second language has become an increasingly hot research topic.This study was conducted in such a background.This study has three main purposes: whether do American children get great progress in the Chinese phonological awareness, Pinyin reading, Chinese spoken vocabulary through one year systematic teaching of Shared-Book reading? Chinese is second language for American children, whether does English phonological awareness will benefit them with Chinese learning? Whether does Chinese phonological awareness will facilitate them with English learning too? The Chinese Shared-Book reading intervention was implemented in an elementary school in State of Washington.All first grade children participated in the experiment have completed the pre-tests and post-tests with phonological awareness tests, including Chinese and English, Chinese reading, Pinyin reading and Chinese spoken vocabulary.The results showed that by the year of Chinese learning with Shared-Book reading systematic approach American children have gained a huge leap forward in the Chinese phonological awareness, Pinyin reading and Chinese spoken vocabulary; English phonological awareness did not directly benefit their Chinese learning; After one year Chinese learning Chinese, the integrated phonological awareness task—syllable awareness in Chinese predicted American children’s English learning.This finding implies that higher level or integrated Chinese phonological awareness conducive to the development of metalinguistic awareness, thus benefits English phonological awareness, and thus promote the improvement of English reading ability.The study not only at the theoretical level provides more empirical evidence for bilingual education, but also provides valuable guidance to the first line of the teachers.
Key words:
second language studying, shared book reading, phonological awareness, Chinese reading, English reading, syllable awareness
参考文献 Reference
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I., & Luk, G.(2012).Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain.Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4).See more at: http://dana.org/Cerebrum/2012/The_Cognitive_Benefits_of_Being_Bilingual/#sthash.Xb0ezsnG.dpuf.
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I.M., & Luk, G.(2008).Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34.
Bialystok, E.(2001).Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition.New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cheung, H.Chen, H.-C., Lai, C.Y., Wong, O.C., & Hills, M.(2001).The development of phonological awareness: Effects of spoken language experiences and orthography.Cognition, 81 (3).
Cormier, P., & Kelson, S.(2000).The roles of phonological and syntactic awareness in the use of plural morphemes among children in French immersion.Scientific Studies of Reading, 4(4).
Dodd, B., So, L., & Li, W.(1996).Symptoms of disorder without impairment: The written and spoken errors of bilinguals.In B.Dodd, R.Campbell, & L.Worrall (Eds.), Evaluating theories of language: Evidence from disordered communication (pp.119–136).London: Whurr Publishers.
Durgunoglu, A.Y., Nagy, W.E., & Hancin-Bhatt, B.J.(1993).Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness.Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(3).
Fabiano-Smith, L., & Goldstein, B.(2010).Phonological acquisition in bilingual Spanish–English speaking children.Journal of Speech-Language-Hearing Research, 53.
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S.(1996).Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children.Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Gholamain, M., & Geva, E.(1999).Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in English and Persian.Language Learning, 49(2), 183-217.
Gildersleeve-Neumann, Kester, Davis, & Pe?a.(2008).English speech sound development in preschool-aged children from bilingual English-spanish environments.Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools., 39.
Goldstein, B., & Bunta, F.(2011).Positive and negative transfer in the phonological systems of bilingual speakers.International Journal of Bilinguaism, 16(4).
Holdaway, D.(1979).The foundations of literacy.Portmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Holdaway, D.(1980).Independence in reading.Portmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Kaminski, R.A., & Good, R.H.(1996).Toward a technology for assessing basic early literacy skills.School Psychology Review, 25, 215-227.
Kaminski, R.A., & Good, R.H.(1998).Assessing early literacy skills in a problem solving model: Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills.In M.R.Shinn(Ed.), Advanced applications of Curriculum-Based Measurement (pp.113-142).New York: Guilford.
Laimon, D.E.(1994).The effects of a home-based and center-based intervention on atrisk preschool children’s early literacy skills.Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Li, W., Jiang, W., Shu, H.Hong, K., & Anderson R.(2015).The role of Pinyin in Chinese reading.In Li, W.(Ed.) Book Series: Research on Children’s Reading.
Li, W., Anderson, R.C., Nagy, W.E., & Zhang, H.(2002).Facets of metalinguistic awareness that contribute to Chinese literacy. In W.Li, J.Gaffney, & J.Packard(Eds.), Chinese Language Acquisition: Theoretical and Pedagogical Issues.Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Lleó, C., Kuchenbrandt, I., Kehoe, M., & Trujillo, C.(2003).Syllable final consonants in Spanish and German monolingual and bilingual acquisition.In N.Müller(Ed.), (In)vulnerable Domains in Multilingualism (pp.191-220).Amsterdam, and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.
Marian, V., & Shook, A.(2012).The cognitive benefits of being bilingual.Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science.
Marian, V., & Spivey, M.(2003).Bilingual and monolingual processing of competing lexical items.Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(2), 173-193.See more at: http://dana.org/Cerebrum/2012/The_Cognitive_Benefits_of_Being_Bilingual/#sthash.Xb0ezsnG.dpuf.
Niessen, N.L., Strattman, K, & Scudder, R.(2011).The influence of three emergent literacy skills on the invented spellings of 4-year-olds.Communication Disorders Quarterly, 32(2) .
Ovando, C., & Collier, V.(1998).Bilingual and ESL classrooms.Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Paradis, J.(2001).Do bilingual two-year-old have separate phonological systems? International Journal of Bilingualism, 5, 19-38.
Perfetti, C.(2007).Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension.Scientific studies of reading, 11(4).
Thomas, W., & Collier, V.(1997).School effectiveness for language minority students.Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
Tracy, R.(1995).Child languages in contact: Bilingual language acquisition (English-German) in early childhood.Habilitationsschrift: University of Tübingen.
Verhoeven, L., Steenge, J., & van Balkom, H.(2012).Communication disorders.International Journal of Language, 47(2).
Yopp, H.K.(1992).Developing phonemic awareness in young children.The Reading Teacher, 45.
Ziegler, J.C., & Goswami, U.C.(2005).Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory.Psychological Bulletin, 131(1).
[1] 美国传腾国际大学（Trident University International）
[2] 美国华盛顿塔大学塔科马分校（University of Washington,Tacoma）
[3] 美国华盛顿塔大学塔科马分校（University of Washington,Tacoma）